M: First post will be very long to get things out of the way, next updates will be shorter

British Space Launches in 1960:

• BK08: Two stage. Launched 24 May 1960 at 21:00. Apogee 350 miles.

BK08, the first two-stage vehicle to be fired, was intended to obtain re-entry of the head at a higher speed. Main stage performance was good, but the second stage did not separate from the main stage and so was not ignited. The failure of explosive bolts or inertia switch circuitry was the probable cause. The trial, however, proved the aerodynamics of a new configuration, the control stability with the heavier vehicle, the stressing with greatly increased forward weight and the necessarily modified guidance arrangements.

• BK09 : Two stage. Launched 21 June 1960 at 19:35. Apogee 301 miles.

BK09, the second two-stage Black Knight vehicle, was very successful. Separation of the second stage, initiation of the second stage boost and separation of the head from the second stage boost was satisfactory. The second stage boost ignited at the correct height on the downward trajectory prior to re-entry, and a re-entry velocity of 15,000 ft/second was achieved at 200,000 ft. The tape recorder in the head recorded data during re-entry down to 80,000 ft. Just prior to this an abnormal and completely unexpected increase in head oscillation occurred. The head broke up shortly after this and unfortunately the last inch or so of tape which had passed through the tape head was lost. This corresponded to the period immediately prior to head break-up. The break-up of the head at a low height during re-entry indicated that either the plank construction of the head was unsatisfactory or abnormally high loading was applied during re-entry, maybe resulting from an unstable oscillation. The attempt to observe the re-entry with the Gaslight system showed that the instruments were not sensitive enough, that a better acquisition system was necessary, and that increased Black Knight performance was needed to raise the level of observables.

• BK07: Single stage. Launched 25 July 1960 at 21:24. Apogee 330 miles.

BK07 was a single-stage vehicle with a high drag heat shield head equipped to give data on heat transfer and re-entry dynamics. Extensive instrumentation was put in the motor bay to investigate base heating and pressure distribution. In addition, lightly loaded spring flaps were fitted to the pressure bleed holes in the propulsion bay to check the direction of flow through these holes. Their movement was monitored by telemetry. Propulsion was satisfactory except that towards the end of the burning phase one of the four motors reverted to ‘cold’ thrusting and this resulted in a reduced re-entry velocity. This motor fault was subsequently attributed to a failure of a kerosene feed pipe.

The head separated from the main body but the additional thrust units in the head, provided to give increased separation, did not operate, nor did the turn over and spin thrust units. However, the head did re-enter nose first, but at a large initial incidence. The recovered head shows that impact was on the nose and that there was no re-entry burning on the afterbody. Head telemetry was extremely good and re-entry data was obtained. Complete dynamic analysis of the re-entry head was possible and head temperatures during re-entry were obtained. The tracking lamps which were fitted for the first time to this vehicle were seen clearly by the guidance telescope operator and the kinetheodolite operators after engine flame-out until about 200 seconds. The electronic flash unit failed to function.

• In addition, this year a record number of 12 Skylark rounds were fired, carrying various scientific payloads into the upper atmosphere and outer space.

BBC Coverage on Britain's new space launcher

The biggest news item to cover of course, would be the cancellation of the long delayed and overbudget Blue Streak programme that would have provided Britain with capabilities to deliver a fusion device anywhere in Europe. Officially announced on April 13th, the news came as no shock to the defence establishment as a whole, given the project had long drawn the ire of the Ministry of Defence, the Royal Navy, the Foreign Office and the Treasury. Such was the power of its political enemies that even Blue Streak’s nuclear warheads could likely not match.

While being questioned by the Opposition on the waste of what would amount to a waste of £60 million of public tax money being spent on a project that will never see the light of day, Minister of Defence Harold Watkinson stated that the Blue Streak will form the basis of a satellite launch vehicle, thus making use of the spent money. In a last act of humiliation though, its foremost supporter and ardent defender, Minister of Aviation Duncan Sandys, is set to chair a committee to draft a report on potential uses of an orbital launcher.

While having casted aside the shackles of Blue Streak, further funding is set to be poured from the Air Ministry into Blue Streak, as per recommendations from a 1955 DPRC working party report, “...the most promising line of research and development [for spaceborne assets] would be an orbiting satellite to carry optical reconnaissance equipment…”

The major subcontractor, in preparation for further developments anticipated in the development of a Blue Streak Satellite Launch Vehicle, as officially dubbed by internal government documents, Rolls Royce had entered into a data-sharing agreement with NAA Rocketdyne on testing of the RZ.2 rocket engine set to power Blue Streak. Information exchange also reportedly includes commercial Kerolox engine designs built to fulfill NASA contracts but are now surplus to requirements.

Already, there is work done on the use of Blue Streak as a satellite launcher. A Saunders Roe brochure drafted in conjunction with the Royal Aircraft Establishment detailing a handsome rocket with the name “Black Prince” has already been presented the day after the cancellation (almost as if this has been a long time coming). The design itself is rather simple, with the Blue Streak as the first stage, a 54-inch upscaled Black Knight (we’ll discuss this in more depth later) second stage, with the Gamma engine uprated to 25,000 lb thrust, and various configurations suggested for a third stage, depending on the mission. This would also use HTP and kerosene, with a small four chamber rocket motor, designated the PR.38, from Bristol Siddeley. The vehicle would have a first stage diameter of 10 ft; the upper stages 54 inch or 4½ ft. It would be nearly 98 ft tall. The initial performance calculations for Black Prince gave a figure of around 1,750 lb in low Earth orbit.

In a meeting between the RAE and Saunders Roe, with Sandys in audience, the plan was drafted as such: The initial 1st stage firing would be planned for October 1961. Thereafter there would be three firings in 1962, three in 1963 and one in 1964. The following more detailed firing breakdown was given:

(a) 1st firing – As Blue Streak F1 but simplified …

(b) 2nd firing – As above.

(c) 3rd firing – Plus separation bay and dummy 2nd and 3rd stages.

(d) 4th and 5th firings – As above.

(e) In 1963 – 6th and 7th firing using live 2nd and 3rd stages plus a small simple satellite

In addition, the Black Knight plus third stage require firing from Area 5 [the Black Knight launch site at Woomera]. Three flights suggested between September 1962 and May 1963. Saunders Roe was ready to ramp up production for the 3 additional units in 1961 and 1962.

The total program cost is estimated at £64 million. An analysis was also done of the unit cost of a launcher, once development was complete, and these estimates were in the region of £1.8–£2.1 million, depending on the number of launches per year. In addition, Woomera is poorly placed for launching such satellites, with its range restrictions necessary to prevent overflying of populated areas, and also too far south for geosynchronous launches. Estimates of the cost of an equatorial launch site were in the region of £20–30 million, though it is expected that just as for the cost associated with Woomera, that our allies in Australia will gladly take upon themselves this burden.

Funding for the Blue Streak Satellite Launch Vehicle program has already been earmarked by the Chancellor at a rate of 15 million per annum, with an additional 2 million per annum allocated for associated research. With the aim at maximising the potential of the BSSLV, a high energy upper stage is set to be developed utilising Liquid Hydrogen-Liquid Oxygen technology. The cost of developing a liquid hydrogen stage for the BSSLV was put at between £5.5 million and £7 million. This inelegantly named HUP (Hydrogen Upper Stage) may launch with F9 in 1965 if all are in order.

Ever the optimist, British Interplanetary Society in conjunction with Saunders Roe began concept work into a successor vehicle to the BSSLV. These conceptual designs also include possible future variants of the BSSLV, with a touted “Maximum Black Prince” variant capable of lifting up to 13 tons into Low Earth Orbit, powered by 3 Blue Streak first stage cores, the HUP and a Gamma powered 3rd stage reminiscent of an early 2nd stage concept for the Black Prince.

(Credit to AH.com user sts-200 for the final section)

Recently, a graduate research team from the University of Manchester has started to design a general purpose computer, one with the capability to guide a space probe to distant celestial bodies such as the Moon. Though this remain a theoretical exercise for now, they are attempting to determine how computers can be made smaller and respond to inputs as they occur, rather than always following the same sequence. (This, and a similar project in the US are the roots of what we now know as embedded computing - the ability for a machine to accept sensor inputs and act accordingly in real time).

The RAE publishes the first of a series of studies into the potential uses for satellites. This report looks at communications, notes the 24 hour "stationary" orbit but concludes that lower orbits of 2, 6 or 12 hours would be more easily reached with the small rockets that are likely to be available. The possibility of a "record-playback" satellite in low Earth orbit for communications is studied, with the conclusion that this might be more reliable and secure, if more costly, than existing short-wave radio systems.

The GPO is supportive of the idea of developing a communications satellite platform. Advances in radio transmission systems have made small relay systems practical - small enough to fit on a satellite.

Current and projected transatlantic telephone cables have a capacity of only 48 circuits and costs are very high. Links with Europe are cheaper, but the capacity issue is still there. A radio repeater in orbit - ideally a synchronous orbit over the equator - would potentially allow for hundreds of circuits. Development of the radio systems would not be unduly expensive and a strong financial case is made for a satellite system. It is noted that the case is stronger if the basic satellite design is shared with other projects.

RAE report titled "Observations by Satellites" highlights the potential for mapmaking, weather forecasting and ocean observations using spacecraft. The report keeps clear of "spy satellites", an area in which it is known the US has a very significant program. Instead, it focuses on Radar and Infra-Red detection of enemy activity and the accurate mapping of large areas of land.

A system to "sweep" the oceans using a Radar equipped satellite appears possible, providing global monitoring of ship movements.

Satellites returning regular images would be invaluable in weather forecasting. An on board system to record and transmit TV pictures would be needed, as film could not be returned in sufficient quantity. Unlike an earlier RAE report on communications, this recommends a definite course of action; to develop a satellite platform capable of carrying a camera or radar sensor. This would need to fit on a Blue Streak derived vehicle, be able to operate in a stable attitude (to provide a steady view for the camera or Radar) and be capable of storing and returning data to a ground station.

The third and final report on satellite applications is published by the RAE. Somewhat prosaically titled "Lighthouses in the Sky", it details the potential for navigation and emergency relay satellites. Although primarily for ships, it may also be practical to fit equipment into large aircraft. The report notes the US has a system in development called "Transit" which will consist of a large number of satellites in low Earth orbits.

An active system (in which the ship also transmits a signal to the spacecraft) could be more accurate and easier to build, but would potentially give away the vehicles' position - unlikely to be acceptable for the military.

A passive system (in which the satellites transmit and the ship only receives) is thought more likely to be useful but requires precise positioning of the spacecraft in known orbits.

If several satellites were arranged in a geostationary orbit, they could transmit a timed pulse or rotating beam of known frequency (very similar to the navigation beacons now used by aircraft). These signals could be received and range and bearing information determined. A navigator could work out his position using 3 such signals.

A computer system is suggested to automatically determine the position in real time, although it would require a significant amount of signal conversion and data processing equipment which is currently too large and heavy to be portable.

The report recommends that laboratory testing of radio and signal processing systems be done to verify the ideas outlined. Techniques for maintaining and controlling the position of a spacecraft should also be researched.

The Met Office indicates that a TV equipped satellite would be a considerable benefit to its operations, but notes that the technology to achieve this is some way off and that in the short term such a programme could not be a priority.

The GPO sees the potential for communications satellites, however the "low orbits" achievable with Blue Streak based vehicles are not of interest (an interesting turn-around from its position a few months ago, when low orbits were considered to be the best place to start). An experimental relay system would be of great developmental value, however the GPO will not fund a complete satellite to support it. If this system could be carried on an existing satellite, funding might be found to supply the payload.

There is considerable enthusiasm from the Universities, however the funding position is not encouraging, with the sum of £50,000 "for instrument development" being mentioned. Clearly this is far off the £2-3M it is thought will be needed to develop a satellite.